In: Proceedings of the 4^th Meeting of the ICAZ Bird Working Group, Krakow, Poland, 11-15 September, 2001. Acta zoologica cracoviensia, 45 (special issue), pp. 109-116.

Zhilin Mikhail Gennadievich,  Karhu Alexander Alfredovich

Exploitation of birds in the early Mesolithic of Central Russia.

Abstract

About 20 Mesolithic peat-bog sites were discovered during last ten years by the Upper Volga expedition in Central Russia, 14 of them were excavated, in which a lot of bird bones were found. The present paper deals with avian remains from early Mesolithic layers. The most ancient one is the lower layer of Stanovoye 4 site, referred to the Younger Dryas by pollen and about 10300-10000 BP uncalibrated by C-14. The lower layer of Ivanovskoye 7 site is dated to the second quarter of the Preboreal by pollen and about 9650 BP by C14. The layer III of Stanovoye 4 is referred to the late Preboreal by pollen and about 9200 BP by C14. Thirty four bird species were identified from these layers. Remains of waterfowl are most abundant in all layers. Capercaillie  also played an important role. Other avian species are represented in a small number or by single bones. The palaeoecological   data and the role of birds in economy of the early Mesolithic population is discussed.

Key words: birds, early Mesolithic, peat bog sites

Zhilin Mikhail Gennadievich

Institute of Archaeology RAS

Planernaya street, 3-2-235

Moscow 123480 Russia

E-mail: mizhilin@yandex.ru

Karhu Alexander Albertovich

Palaeontological Institute RAS

Profsoyuznaya street, 123

Moscow 117997 Russia

E-mail: akarhu@paleo.ru

I. Introduction

Dozens of Mesolithic sites were excavated and hundreds were discovered during last decades in Central Russia. Most of these sites are situated on mineral soils where organic materials are not preserved. About 20 Mesolithic peat bog sites with good preservation of various organic remains were discovered during last ten years by the Upper Volga expedition in Central Russia, 14 of them were excavated. Numerous mammalian, fish and avian bones side by side with artefacts made from stone, bone, antler, wood and other plant materials were found in reliable stratigraphic context. Wide use of C14 and pollen analyses made possible accurate dating and reconstruction of vegetation and climate during the habitation of these sites. Most part of Mesolithic peat bog sites with good preservation of organic  remains in the East European forest zone belong to the middle and late Mesolithic and are dated to the Boreal and Atlantic periods. Early Mesolithic peat bog sites dated to the Preboreal period are still very scarce. Two of them – Pulli and Zveinieki 2 (lower layer) are in Estonia and Latvia, three others – Ivanovskoye 7 (lower layer), Stanovoye 4 (cut 3, layers IV, IIIa  and III) and Sahtysh 14 (lower layer) are situated in the Volga-Oka interflew (Fig. 1).  

Ivanovskoye peat bog  (Fig. 1, 1) is situated about 150 km to the  north-east from Moscow,  between Moscow and Yaroslavl in the middle flow of river Nerl, which ran through a large lake during the Stone Age, connecting it with the  Klyazma river, the tributary  of the left bank of the Oka. Ten sites were discovered there. Ivanovskoye  7 is the most interesting. 106  square  meters were excavated there by D.A.  Krainov in  1974-1975, and 332 square meters by M.G. Zhilin in 1992-1997. The site has three Mesolithic and two Neolithic layers. Mesolithic settlements occupied low promontory during lake regressions, which was submerged during transgressions. The lower, early Mesolithic (IV) layer belongs to early Butovo culture and is dated by C14 (all dates in the present paper are uncalibrated before 1950) to 9650+-110 BP (GIN-9520) and  9640+-60 BP (GIN-9516). It is dated by pollen to the first half of the Preboreal period before its optimum. During middle Preboreal transgression it was submerged; the bottom of gyttja layer, overlapping the lower cultural layer is dated by C14 to 9690+-120BP (GIN-9367), 9500+-110 BP (GIN-9517)  and 9500+-100 BP (GIN-9385).

Podozerskoye peat bog (Fig. 1, 2) is situated between Ivanovo and Yaroslavl,  in 50 km to the south-east from the  latter.  The river Lahost, the tributary of the right bank of the river Kotorosl which is the tributary of the right bank of the Upper Volga,  starts from this bog. Five sites were discovered there. Stanovoye 4 site is the most interesting.  It is situated at a promontory between a shallow gulf of a large ancient lake and a small pond from which the Lahost river started. 427 square meters were excavated there in 1992-2001. The site has 4 Mesolithic  layers. The lower (IV) earliest Mesolithic layer is the earliest site of Butovo culture. Pollen data indicate that formation of gyttja with finds of the IV cultural layer took place during the terminal part of the Younger Dryas. C14 dates of the bottom of gyttja layer, incorporating cultural remains in the central part of cut 3 - 10060+-120 BP (GIN-10127 I), 10040+-90 BP (GIN-10027 II), 9970+-50 BP (GIN-10026 I), 9940+-50 BP (GIN-10026 II) estimate the dating of a transgression which flooded the site. The same layer in cut 2 is also referred to terminal Younger Dryas by pollen evidence and received a C-14 date 10300±70 (GIN- -10112 – II). The next occupation of the site by the population of Ienevo culture took place during during a very short period in the first half of the  Preboreal period, just before its optimum (about 9600 BP). A wooden stake, sharpened with a stone axe or adze from this layer in the cut 3 is C14 dated to 9620+-60 BP (GIN-8377). A sample of peat with gyttja, overlaying this layer in the central part of cut 3 is C14 dated to 9560+-40 BP (GIN-10125 II) and 9480+-120 BP (GIN-10125 I), marking  the submergence of the site during middle Preboreal transgression. Cultural layer III, belonging to middle stage of Butovo culture, is referred in cut 3 to the second half of  the Preboreal  period by pollen (about 9300-9000 BP). C14 dates of peat samples from it are 9280+-240 BP (GIN-10122 I) and 9090+-400 BP (GIN-10124). A wooden stake, sharpened with a stone adze dated to 9220+-60 BP (GIN-8375), determines the habitation period of the site more accurately.

The  Sakhtysh  peat  bog (Fig. 3, 3) is situated in 40 km to the south-west from Ivanovo,  connected by a small river Koika through  Nerl to Klyazma, the tributary of the left bank of the Oka. The site occupies a place in a peat bog at the foot of a very gentle promontory of a terrace of the late glacial lake. During the Mesolithic it occupied a low lake shore near the river outlet. The site was discovered in 1999, 108 square meters were excavated in 1999-2001. Five Mesolithic layers belonging to Butovo culture were investigated at the site. The lower (IV) layer is dated to Preboreal by pollen, C14 dates are in process.

II. Avian  remains

The most representative collection of bird remains comes from the lower layer of Ivanovskoye 7 site (Karhu, 2002), it includes 921 defined bone remains, 788 of which belong to 34 bird species (table 1).  Good preservation of separate samples goes with rather high general fragmentation of bones. Thus besides identified bones 940 undeterminable fragments, mainly shafts  diatheses  were found. 270 (28,7%) of the latter belong to young individuals, while among 788 identified bones there are  only 46 such finds (5,8%). Nine species (26%) are represented only by 1-2 bones. Condition of bone surfaces indicates their mechanical fragmentation took place before burial.  Table 2 gives anatomic composition of identified samples.  

 Table 1.  Avian species from Ivanovskoje 7,  layer IV. NISP - number of identified specimens; MNI - minimum number of individuals

Table II.

Anatomical composition of the identified bone remains of birds from Ivanovskoje 7, layer IV. NISP – number of identified specimens; number of specimens identified only to generic or subfamily levels are shown in brackets 

Various ducks and other waterfowl are most abundant and include 20 species. Their remains make 67,3% of total identified samples. Ducks of the genus Anas  are most numerous – 36,5% of identified bones. Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) prevails, while gadwall (Anas strepera), teal (Anas crecca) and garganey (Anas querquedula), pintail (Anas acuta), pochard (Aythya ferina), tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), smew (Mergellus albellus) are represented in an ordinary way. Among geese are gray lap (Anser anser),  bean (Anser fabalis) and white-fronted (Anser albifrons). Scaup (Aythya marila) and goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)  are also present, while red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) was identified from a single bone.

Black throated diver (Gavia arctica) is quite common. Remains of a slavonian grebe (Podiceps auritus) are most numerous, even 1,5 times more abundant than remains of a mallard. Great crested grebe (Podiceps cristaus) and red-necked grebe (Podiceps grisegena) are much more scarce. 91% of gray heron (Ardea cinerea) bones came from young birds. Several bones of bittern were also found.  

Birds of prey are represented by white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) and osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is represented mainly by bones of adult male birds – 24 of 31 (77,4%). The number of blackgrouse (Tetrao tetrix) bones is substantially less. Three bones of crane (Grus grus) were identified. Coot (Fulica atra) composes a small series of bones, while black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus), hooded crow (Corvus lorone cornix) and rook (Corvus frugilegus) are represented by 1-2 bones each.

In general avian assemblage of the lower layer of Ivanovskoje 7 shows a dominance of hydrophilic species – ducks, geese, divers, grebes, heron, gull, bittern, crane, coot, white-tailed eagle, osprey – 30 from 34 identified species. Among others hooded crow and rook prefer meadow and bushy meadow areas, while capercaillie lives in the forest. Black-grouse inhabits both  bushy water-meadows and sparse forests with water-meadows or raised bogs. Only capercaillie and black-grouse are settled species, hooded crow – settled or limited nomadic, while all other identified species are migrants.

Excavations of Stanovoye 4 site are not finished yet, and studies of bird remains are still in process. About 500 identifiable bones come mainly from layer III. Preliminary 24 species were identified. As in Ivanovskoye 7, the main part of the avian assemblage of  the Mesolithic layers of Stanovoye 4 is composed of hydrophilic species – ducks, geese, divers, grebes. Remains of birds of prey first of all white-tailed eagle are more numerous here. On the other side, remains of such important forest bird as capercaillie are very scarce. In general, systematic composition of avian assemblages of Mesolithic layers of Ivanovskoye 7 and Stanovoye 4 correspond to modern avifauna of Central Russia. Excavations of Sahtysh 14 site are in its initial phase, faunal remains were not studied yet. We can only say, that bird remains are abundant in the lower layer and bones of waterfowl are obviously rather numerous.

III. Bird hunting

All identified samples belong to medium and large species, what is typical for collections coming from hunting activities. Correlation of finds of representatives of different ecological groups characterize mostly selective character of the hunt  than development of corresponding biotopes and the structure of bird population in the area around the site. Mesolithic populations of both  Ivanovskoye 7 and Stanovoye 4 sites preferred to hunt birds in surroundings of their habitation sites  including the water and areas near the water. These localities attracted prehistoric hunters by abundance of many bird species valuable for hunting.

Good preservation of  bone does not let to suppose that scarcity of remains of young birds can be explained by taphonomic conditions. Dominance of bones of adult birds indicates seasonal mass bird hunting before beginning of autumn migrations, i.e. before the moment when young individuals prevail over adult ones and should compose the main part of taken birds. Late spring (after the end of the spring flood) and summer hunting of waterfowl  seems most probable. The only clearly observed exclusion is heron, represented at Ivanovskoye 7 mainly by bones of juveniles  (91%). It supposes that grown up nestlings and young poorly flying herons could be a special hunting object. Forest  hunting after capercaillie was ordinary practiced but its role was much less than that  of waterfowl.

Hunting weapons are well represented among finds from early Mesolithic layers of Ivanovskoye 7, Stanovoye 4 and Sakhtysh 14. Bow and arrows were the main weapon used primarily for hunting mammals and also waterfowl and large fish, as indicated by numerous stray finds of bone arrowheads in ancient lake deposits at considerable distance from habitation sites. Arrowheads from sites mentioned above include various types, made from mammalian bones (Zhilin, 1998, 2001).  Some of them, especially slotted ones with one or two rows of flint  microblades along sides, fixed in slots with a special pitch were used for hunting large mammals. Small finely barbed points  were used for shooting pikes in shallow water. The specimen from Ivanovskoye 7 was found stuck deeply in the lake bottom at an angle about 70% to it. Arrowheads of this and some other types (fig. 2) could be used for shooting big birds as well.  

But the majority of waterfowl, especially ducks and grebes were caught with the help of  loops and nets. Loops installed above the water usually catch ducks, and dominance of the latter in bird remains from studied sites confirms this. Grebes, divers and saw-bills get into loops rather rarely. They were caught by  stationary nets – either as by product of fishing,  or by nets installed specially for this purpose. Only catching by nets can explain that remains of a slavonian grebe are 1,5 times more numerous than remains of mallard in the lower layer of Ivanovskoye 7. Net catching of the former is most probable because this species usually feeds at shallow water, overgrown by water plants – areas also preferred by so called “grass” pike. The latter composes most part of fish, caught by early Mesolithic inhabitants of the mentioned sites. The use of nets for fishing is documented by a series of net sinkers from early Mesolithic layers of Ivanovskoye 3 and Stanovoye 4. Flocks of moulting drakes could be driven into nets installed above the water, probably supplemented by a fence like a fish trap. Remains of such fences were excavated at Stanovoye 4, and a fish trap, made from split willow branches was found in the IIIa layer of Stanovoye 4, accompanied by a large sinker. Capercaillie were probably taken with bow or cough by loops and other traps.

IV. Conclusions

Pollen data (Spiridonova, Aleshinskaya, 1999) indicate that since the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene early Mesolithic populations in Central Russia preferred large lake depressions and river valleys, occupied by forests of the taiga type. Surrounding landscapes were rather mosaic in the first half of the Preboreal with some areas at watersheds still covered by tundra and steppe elements. Dry meadows were also widespread, bogs occupied depressions. Hunting of large mammals was the basis of the early Mesolithic economy, elk and beaver being most important hunted animals (Kirillova, 2002). Fishing was the second important branch of economy. Pike dominates among fish bones from early Mesolithic sites in Central Russia with good bone preservation (Sychevskaya, 2002).  Hunting of mammals and fishing were supplemented by gathering of edible forest and water plants, as indicated by hazel nut shells, some with imprints of human teeth,  and water lilies seeds, also met in coprolites,  from the lower cultural layer of Ivanovskoye 7.

Studies of bird exploitation in Central Russia during early Mesolithic showed that this branch of hunting played important role in food supply and was  well developed, supplementing hunting of mammals and fishing. Waterfowl was most important. Methods and hunting gear were various and rather sophisticated, bringing considerable amount of spoil. Analyses of settlement patterns indicate that summer camps were founded in localities, suitable for forest hunting, fishing and fowling at the same time. Since the very beginning of the Mesolithic the population of Central Russia was practicing complex economy of forest hunters, fishers and gatherers in which bird hunting played rather important role.

References

Karhu A.A. 2002. Ornitocomplex of the site Ivanovskoye 7. In: M.G Zhilin et al. Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures on Upper Volga (after materials of Ivanovskoye 7). Nauka. Moscow. (In Russian).

Kirillova I.V. 2002. Mammalian fauna fromthe site Ivanovskoye 7. In: M.G Zhilin. et al. Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures on Upper Volga (after materials of Ivanovskoye 7). Nauka. Moscow. (In Russian).

Spiridonova E.A., Aleshinskaya A.S. 1999. An attenpt of application of pollen analysis to the Mesolithic sites of the Volga-Oka interflew.  In: V.L. Egorov (ed.) The State History Museum – an encyclopedia of Fatherland history and culture. GIM publishing department.  Moscow, 127-141.

Sychevskaya E.K. 2002. The composition of catches and character of fishing of the inhabitants of the site Ivanovskoye 7. In: M.G Zhilin et al. Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures on Upper Volga (after materials of Ivanovskoye 7). Nauka. Moscow. (In Russian).

Zhilin M. 1998. Technology of the Manufacture of  Mesolithic Bone Arrowheads on the Upper Volga. European Journal of Archaeology: 1998:1:2: 149-175.

Zhilin, M.G. 2001. Mesolithic bone industry of the East European forest zone. URSS publishing house. Moscow. (in Russian).

Illustrations

Fig. 1. Early Mesolithic sites with good preservation of organic remains in Eastern Europe. 1 – Ivanovskoye 7; 2 – Stanovoye 4; 3 – Sakhtysh 14; 4 – Pulli; 5 – Zveiniyeki 2.

Fig. 2. Bone arrowheads which were probably used for hunting birds: 1-4 – Ivanovskoye 7, layer IV; 5-6 – Stanovoye 4, cut 3, layer III.